The phrase urban open space can mean very different things to different people. Those who see it in a negative light envision vacant lots filled with trash which devalue the surrounding areas. Conversely, those who see urban open space as a benefit, have coined the term "greenspace" and defined it as: An natural area within the local community designed and maintained to improve the mental, physical, and aesthetic well being of the residents, and to improve their connection to and appreciation of nature especially in the urban environment. Examples include; grassy play areas, park-like areas for picnics and family or community gatherings, community flower and vegetable gardens, natural areas, school nature areas, environmental learning centers, and open areas for aesthetic purposes. Along with all of this, others such as Deborah Boerner-Ein believe that "Property next to urban open space [Greenspace] is worth more than property that is not." In urban areas today, this "Greenspace" is often difficult to come by. "People need green open places to go to; when they are close they use them. But if the greens are more than three minutes away, the distance overwhelms the need" (?). In many low-income urban areas today, spaces like this are not being found in sufficient quantities.

An urban community in St. Paul, commonly referred to as "Frogtown", currently suffers from a problem of insufficient greenspace. According to Henderson, "a thorough fully implemented urban development plan should include more than great building,, it should include great parks and open space because both buildings and open space benefit from each other." In Frogtown, these open spaces are few and far between, showing an increased need for this investigating this issue. With more and more businesses coming in, the need for open space is heightened. Vacant lots, potential greenspaces, are peppered all over the area, but little consideration has been given to converting these spaces into usable greenspaces.

Students from the Biology and Nursing departments of Bethel College began to examine the amount and roles of, interest in, and need for greenspace in Frogtown in a preliminary study during Spring Semester 2000. After the area had been suveyed for potential green space, students surveyed the residents in order to discover their understanding of and desires and potential uses for these available spaces. The data collected can help community origanizers decide on how to deal with future development which could possibility include greenspace because it comes in a variety of forms. Not only does greenspace increase value of surrounding properties by adding to the aesthetic wellbeing of the area. Greenspace also significantly contributes to the physical and mental wellbeing of those who choose to use it. Greenspace can be used for any number of activities making it a profitable place for virtually everyone.

Urban and suburban ecosystems are most obviously connected by river systems.Spring flow in urban areas is much higher when compared with spring flow from either rural or suburban areas. Buildings and road systems shed water readily and speed the flow of water whereas trees and porous topsoil tend to slow the flow of water. Spring flow is greatly affected by the physical features of the surrounding topography. Trees, for instance, tend to stabilize the soil and inhibit particles to be swept away with the current. If soil particles are swept away by increased water flow due to a storm, they usually end up as polluting agents in the stream (2).

It is important to notice that all members of a community are inter- connected. In urban areas, humans can have dramatic impacts on the surrounding ecosystem. It is this authorÕs belief, in fact, that humans are the "most dominant force driving the ecosystem in one direction or another" (2). We are thinking creatures and can make educated decisions regarding the location and rate of urban development. These types of decisions can have profoundly negative or positive effects on the environment. We must take our role in the ecosystems seriously because our actions have long-standing consequences.

The presence of trees in urban settings can do more than stabilize the topsoil. Trees would not only benefit general health and aesthetic beauty but would also save cities a lot of money. Serving as buffers, trees cleanse the air of pollution and other toxins. In addition to this environmental aspect, trees also serve to reduce energy costs by blocking out the wind and sun. In Chicago, researchers with the U.S. Forest Service speculated that planting 95,000 trees and supporting them for 30 years would save the city $38 million in pollution removing and energy saving activities (3).

Economic and ecological benefits are important, but the presence of trees in an urban area can have a therapeutic effect by reducing stress levels. A University of Illinois study revealed that apartment building residents seemed to have stronger relationships with neighbors and experience less domestic violence when surrounded by some degree of foliage. Ulrich, a psychologist at Texas A&M University, found that patients experience a relaxation of muscles and lowering of blood pressure when the views of residents included trees (3). Urbanization also impacts epidemiology and disease profiles. Increasing population density can aid in the spread and emergence of disease, as well as reemergence of old ones. Additionally, there are other affects associated with epidemiology and urbanization that contributes to a lower level of overall health, such as emotional stress, loss of family structure, congested traffic, noise, and environmental pollution. Access to basic public services such as drinking water supply, housing, solid waste disposal, transportation and health care also contribute to health in urban environments(4).

To overcome some of the difficulties associated with urbanization, and to create sustainable communities we need to use natural cycles of air, water, and nutrients (2).

The importance of urban trees and forests is more the meets the eye. They do have plenty of aesthetic value, but their roles within a community hold functional purposes as well. According to American Forests, these roles include: protecting our watersheds, reduce storm water runoff, lower energy consumption, offer recreational opportunities, reduce air pollution, and fight global warming (???). James Clark agrees and goes on to state in his article, Urban Tree Problems, The American Forestry Association estimates that the average urban tree provides $273 of environmental benefits per year. Given the estimated 60 million street trees in the United States, the annual value of the benefits provided by theses trees is approximately $516 billion. Being there is room for 60 million additional trees along our streets, the potential exists for doubling this figure (???). However, due to rapid urbanization our cities are destroying more trees than they are planting.

The Department of Landscape Architecture at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, states in a master's thesis proposal that the rapid urbanization has exacted seemingly irreversible changes to the physical environment we live in. As urban mass increases, urban climate has deteriorated. Phenomenon such as the increase in temperatures, smog and carbon dioxide levels can be attributed to the developed landscapes, more impermeable surfaces, excessive built mass, heat generating equipment, atmospheric pollutants and several other related factors (1). From this information alone, we can see that a change in the direction of urban Vegetation needs to be made.

Recent research indicates that energy conservation could be significantly impacted by the implementation of more urban trees. Vegetation has been considered one of the most cost-effective energy conservation methods by several electric companies. Urban trees provide desirable climate and human comfort through shading (which reduces the amount of radiant energy absorbed, stored, and radiated by built surfaces), evapotranspiration (which is a process of converting radiant energy into latent energy, thereby reducing sensible heat that warms the air, and air flow modification (which affects transport and diffusion of energy, water vapor, and pollutants). Studies have also shown that urban vegetation significantly lowers wall surface temperatures and air conditioning electricity savings of up to 25 percent. With that amount of savings, each tree is saving up to $41, adding up to about $1 billion in per year of nation wide savings, simply through residential and urban tree planting. Urban tree planting is simply beneficial in too many ways not to be applied. The environmental, esthetic, economic and community benefits have been proven to be significant in the positive direction and for the reasons stated should be seriously considered.

Urban Agriculture

The Urban Agriculture Network has outlined the following as goals of the urban agriculture movement:

1. The transformation of an area from rural to urban farming practices ahead of actual physical urban expansion.
2. The efficient use of vacant and under-used land at the urban core and within built-up areas
3. The increase in individual and community food security within urban neighborhoods and urban regions.
4. The generation of jobs and small enterprises in urban areas.
5. The reuse of urban waste for food, fuel, and greening
6. The greening of the city through tree-planting, community gardens, and other such landscape uses
7. The expansion of the sense of community in urban areas.

Urban agriculture has many benefits for city dwellers. First of all, it increases food security and for the most needy. It does this by providing accessibility to nutrient rich foods at lower costs. Poverty can be reduced in low-income areas by the creation of jobs and small-scale businesses that surround urban agriculture. It also has the potential to provide skills development and increased work ethic. Establishment of urban agriculture also halts sprawl by permanently putting to use fertile areas within the city at no cost to the taxpayer. This is possible because foods made available art sold at a high price but when produced locally, the extensive transportation costs are eliminated. Urban agriculture is also useful in that it is able to close nutrient loops by converting urban waste to food and brownfields to productive gardens. Extensive packaging would become unnecessary, and organic waste could be used on-site rather than be hauled to the landfill where it produces one of the most toxic greenhouse gasses, methane.

Another benefit of urban agriculture that is difficult to quantify, is its usefulness in establishing community. Involvement in urban agriculture/community gardening, has been shown to not only improve mental/emotional health, but it also encourages socialization and interaction among individuals.

In order to produce food in the city, there needs to be adequate space available. Currently underutilized spaces need to be identified and their potential for agriculture maximized. For example; backyards, community gardens, rooftop gardens (these can take advantage of heat output of buildings which can extend the growing season by as much as 3 weeks. It also impoves building insulation and reduces heating costs.), vertical gardens (walls, balconies, trellises, vertically stacked containers), street trees/orchards, and inside buildings (mushrooms, herbs, and salad crops).

One concern about the suitability of urban land for food production is its potential contamination due to previous activities on the land. One cannot know the condition of the soil without investigating its previous uses. Lead is the main concern in urban soils, which is mostly attributed to automobile exhaust. By bringing in soil or compost and cultivating raised bed gardens, this possibility can be avoided. On land known to be contaminated, some type of useful non-food product, such as hemp, can be produced. The non-food plant could then detoxify the soil and render it useful for food production within a few years.

Other concerns, in regard to urban agriculture, are policy and regulatory barriers (zoning and city by-laws) and theft and vandalism. Though, it has been found that gardens with overlooking residential buildings have far fewer problems with theft and vandalism.

Further research needs to be performed in order to better assess the use and location of future greenspace in the Frogtown community. Future directions could lead to several possibilities. First, three test plots, small pieces of land, could be set up within the community to determine the effect of community ownership. One plot would be set up and maintained by Bethel College students, people outside the community. Bethel College students, in conjunction with the neighborhood would set up a second plot, and the students would help the community maintain it. The third plot would be planted by students and left alone after establishment.

A second study needs to be done that investigates the history of parks in the Frogtown community. Looking at established and previously existing parks in the area would allow for a better understanding of what makes a park work in Frogtown. Factors and variables of the various parks can be analyzed to determine why some parks failed and others were successful. Knowledge of these factors would contribute to improved greenspace in the community in the future. Along with this, the history of a specific park, such as the Selby-Dale park could be looked at for further suggestions.

Also, it needs to be determined how much people do what they say. Specifically, a study could be performed that would compare how much people say they value greenspace compared to how much they use it. This would entail monitoring the existing greenspace in the community.

Fourth, a quadrate study, or "nearest neighbor analysis" could be performed. This would involve measuring the distance from greenspace to the nearest residence, school, parking lot, etc. This would provide a better understanding of where greenspace is needed and where it would be most effective.

Finally, more data needs to be collected to obtain a better understanding of the wants and needs of the community. This means conducting more surveys, and trying to get a more representative response from the various ethnic groups in Frogtown. This could also involve revising the survey to address the current situation of greenspace, as opposed to focusing solely on greenspace in the future.

Works Cited

Intro
Boerner-Ein, D. 1991. Urban Open Space: Color it Valuable. American Forests 97(1-2):61-64.

Henderson, H. 1998. Urban Parks and Open Space. Planning 64(6):29.

Accessible Green? (need reference)

Urban Ecosystems
1. Endangered Rivers Report Cites Bird Refuge. 1999. Birder’s World 13(4):16.

2. Moll, G., Macie, E., Neville, B. 1995. Inside ecosystems. American Forests 101(3-4):S8(4)

Urban Agriculture
Barrs, R. 1999. Sustainable Uraban Food Production in the City of Vancouver:An

Analytical and Strategy Framework for Planners and Decision-Makers.

Other References:

Garden Way Publishers. 1989. Lawns and Landscapes. Doubleday Books

Christian Science Monitor. Urban Open Space Movement Takes Root in Atlanta Park. www.csmonitor.com/durable/1998/03/30/us/us.6.html